Information Literacy 1 Tutorials

Using credible sources - sources that are generally reliable, trustworthy, and accurate - helps communicate your understanding of a topic and your own credibility as a developing scholar, researcher, or content creator. A generation ago, something like a literature review for a "PSYC 101" or "BIOL 101" class could be challenging, but usually the tough part was identifying sources and then tracking them down. Now, in an age of misinformation, disinformation, conspiracy theories, and deep fakes, the challenges are different - you can easily find a gazillion sources on almost any topic, but you have to be precise with your search (to scope things and make sure your search results are relevant and manageable) and you have to carefully evaluate almost everything.

• Misinformation: False or inaccurate information, or "getting the facts wrong." Misinformation can be spread both intentionally or unintentionally. Misinformation might include biased or partisan news, pseudoscience, and conspiracy theories.
• Disinformation: False information or intentionally misstating the facts. Disinformation is deliberately spread to mislead or deceive people or sway public opinion.

According to the Harvard Kennedy School's Misinformation Review, some of the reasons people share misinformation or disinformation include political partisanship, inattention (they just don't notice it), lack of cognitive reflection (they don't ask questions about the accuracy or credibility of the information), or repeated exposure. Some of this repeated exposure might be due to echo chambers, as discussed in your common reading for this class, "Escape the Echo Chamber"). So, even though it's not your fault that some of the information we come across is inaccurate or wrong, it is your responsibility to follow up and verify the accuracy and credibility of that information before believing it, resharing it, or using it for a course assignment. 

Note: Credible and academic/scholarly don't necessarily mean the same thing. For example, non-academic sources like a statement made in a social media post or a fact-checked news piece could be very credible and trustworthy, while a scientific study published in a peer-reviewed journal, but later retracted, would no longer be considered credible. Watch the following video to learn about source credibility and why it's important to consider credibility inside and outside of the classroom:

Source: North Carolina State University Libraries. "Evaluating Sources for Credibility." Licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US License. (3:14)

Bias is a tendency, inclination, or prejudice toward or against something or someone. Our biases can make all of us susceptible to inaccurate information, poorly supported claims, and misinformation and disinformation. 

• Implicit or unconscious bias: Implicit bias includes positive and negative attitudes and beliefs about other people, ideas, issues, or institutions. They affect our opinions and behavior but occur outside of our conscious awareness and control. Everyone has implicit biases that they have developed over a lifetime; even people who try to remain impartial, like judges and journalists, are affected by these biases. However, people can work to identify harmful implicit biases and then work to change their attitudes and beliefs.
• Explicit bias: Explicit bias refers to positive or negative attitudes and beliefs that we consciously or deliberately hold and express about a person, group, or institution. 

Cognitive biases are often framed as common errors in judgment or recognizable patterns of deviation from logical thought. Developing an awareness of some of the most common cognitive biases, like confirmation bias, will help you better evaluate your own thinking and the claims of others. Confirmation bias is the selective collection of evidence, or our subconscious tendency to seek and interpret information or evidence in ways that affirm our existing beliefs, ideas, expectations, and assumptions. Confirmation bias is both affected by and feeds our implicit biases. It can be most entrenched around beliefs and ideas that we are strongly attached to or that provoke a strong emotional response. Watch the following video to learn about confirmation bias:

Source: Above the Noise. "Why Do Our Brains Love Fake News?" YouTube, uploaded by Above the Noise, 3 May 2017. (5:20)

Recommended reading: "Confirmation and Other Biases." Facing History and Ourselves. 

Michael Caulfield's SIFT Method is a practical and hands-on approach for evaluating sources - particularly those you find online:

• Stop: When you encounter an interesting source or a compelling argument, slow down to review the information. What is it telling you? What kind of argument is it making? How did you come across it? (For example, was it shared with you by a friend with similar views? Was it fed to you via an algorithm?)

• Investigate the source: Review details about the source to verify that it's credible. (For example, who wrote it, and what makes them an expert on this topic? Do they provide evidence for their claims? Is the source current, or potentially outdated?)

• Find alternative coverage: This is also called lateral reading - check other sources to see how closely the findings or claims align on this topic. Do other sources present similar claims, or similar interpretations of relevant evidence or findings? Have similar studies been conducted, suggesting similar findings or claims? What do topic experts think about these findings or claims, and why? What counterarguments can you find, and are they well-researched? This step is essential, especially when you're researching a controversial or "political" topic. 

• Trace claims and quotes to their original sources: Does the source you found provide accurate and current information? Is any information taken out of context or "cherry picked" to support particular claims? What other questions come up while you are reading through it? Whenever possible, don't cite a source that is just summarizing information from another source - find the original source instead, check to see if that other source you found was accurately representing the original source's findings, and then cite the original source instead.  

We highly recommend practicing the techniques outlined in the four videos below:

Source: Caulfield, Mike. "Online Verification Skills - Video 1: Introductory Video." YouTube, uploaded by CTRL-F, 29 June 2018. (3:13)

Source: Caulfield, Mike. "Online Verification Skills - Video 2: Investigate the Source." YouTube, uploaded by CTRL-F, 29 June 2018. (2:44) 

Source: Caulfield, Mike. "Online Verification Skills - Video 3: Find the Original Source." YouTube, uploaded by CTRL-F, 25 May 2018. (1:54) 

Source: Caulfield, Mike. "Online Verification Skills - Video 4: Look for Trusted Work." YouTube, uploaded by CTRL-F, 25 May 2018. (4:10)